1. Introduction

The interest in having children with a working knowledge of English, especially in speaking, has been growing extensively in Iran. This interest is seen more in big cities and among educated families in Iranian society, and the reason seems to be the growing tendency for immigration and the expansion of the English language in society due to the World Wide Web and social media expansion (Ghajarieh et al., 2024)

Teaching English has been practiced at preschool levels in kindergartens and at the elementary phase in Iranian private schools. However, it is not taught officially before grade seven at Iranian public schools. Despite Iranian families' strong tendency to have their children learn English from an early age, there is a significant research gap regarding how young learners go through this process in Iran (Ghajarieh & Mirkazemi, 2023). This gap is particularly concerning given the unique cultural and linguistic context of Iran, where the country's rich Persian linguistic heritage and complex sociopolitical relationship with the West create an environment for English language learning that cannot be fully addressed by generalized English as a foreign language (EFL) research done elsewhere.

The significance of this study lies in several key aspects. First, it addresses the fast-growing interest in English language proficiency among Iranian families, especially in large cities and educated circles. Second, it provides empirical evidence through qualitative research tools on the challenges teachers face when instructing young learners. Third, it highlights the challenges learners in Iran face in learning speaking and writing.

Moreover, there is a crucial gap between pre-service teacher training and the realities of teaching in practice. The disconnection between theoretical training and practice creates a knowledge gap in the literature requiring investigation and improvement. The following research questions guided this study:

1- What are the overarching themes on teaching speaking and writing to young learners produced upon investigating pre-service teachers’ beliefs in Iran?

2- What are the overarching themes on teaching speaking and writing to young learners produced upon investigating in-service teachers’ beliefs?

3- What are the possible connections between these teachers’ beliefs and practices upon observing their classes?

2. Literature Review

2.1. Language Teaching to Young Learners in Iran

Interest in English language teaching, especially to young learners, has grown due to globalization and migration issues in many countries, including Iran, in the past few years (Ghajarieh et al., 2024). This is more characteristic of urban centers and families with higher education, reflecting greater societal change toward showing interest in acquiring English in a globalizing world. The drivers behind this trend are complex, ranging from practical considerations to social dynamics unique to the Iranian context. As Davari and Aghagolzadeh (2015, p. 13) argue, teaching English is dependent on sociopolitical issues, given that “Iran is one of the most notable anti-imperialistic countries in the world.”

One major driving force behind this growing interest is immigration and a fashionable trend among people from different walks of life (Davari, 2013; Hakimzadeh, 2006). As more families consider potential immigration to English-speaking countries for education, jobs, or lifestyle, the demand for English has become urgent. They also consider learning English as a tool for making progress (Riazi, 2005). Dictated by this seemingly unfair situation, children may face difficulties in a new linguistic environment; thus, parents may consider training their children in the English language from an early age.

Among the elite and well-educated, there is an added element of increasing prestige associated with the knowledge of English (Davari, 2013; Ghajarieh et al., 2024). This perception of the language as an indicator of social status and intellectual sophistication has been a strong motivator, driving educated families to send their children to private language classes. Despite the pressing need on the part of society for teaching English to young language learners, instructing English to young students is often marginalized within the wider field of English language teaching, with educators facing discrimination and restricted recognition compared to those instructing adults (Tavakol & Tavakoli, 2022). This could negatively affect the quality of language education and teacher motivation.

The second edition of Pinter's (2014) seminal work on Teaching Young Language Learners emphasizes how cognitive development significantly influences language acquisition. Unlike adults, children simultaneously develop first and second language skills, presenting both opportunities and challenges.

4.2. Research on Pre- and In-Service Teachers in Young Learner Education

Teachers, as an important agency, can play an important role in the English language education of young Iranian learners.  A number of studies have been conducted on in-service and pre-service language teachers in Iran teaching four language skills of writing, reading, speaking, and listening. They have examined the beliefs and practices of these teachers. For instance, Bozorgian et al. (2023) found that in-service teachers in Iran have positive attitudes toward teaching writing, but there is a significant gap between their beliefs and classroom practice, with less than 3% of class time given to writing because of factors like inadequate payment and lack of time. In a related study of young learners, Oktarina (2024) reported that, as in-service teachers noted, the pre-service teachers showed better teaching skills when instructing young learners. In another recent study in the context of young learners with a focus on pre-service teachers, Alten and Karakaş (2024) found that Turkish pre-service EFL teachers need certain competencies to effectively teach English to young learners; however, they might encounter obstacles because of different variables. The gap between the beliefs and practices of pre-service instructor training and in-service teachers presents a considerable difficulty in English language education and learning for young students.

Current empirical research studies have illuminated various factors in teaching English to young learners. Copland et al. (2014) highlighted themes such as composing problems and monitoring, noting that obstacles were both worldwide and local. Oktavia et al. (2022) examined educators' difficulties in teaching language skills to young learners, revealing fluctuating student motivation levels significantly affecting the learning process.

Ghajarieh et al. (2024) carried out a longitudinal research study examining the intersection of neoliberalism discourse, parental participation, ideas, and socioeconomic status in connection with young students' speaking efficiency in post-pandemic Iran. Their findings highlighted the complicated interplay between socioeconomic variables and language findings.

3. Method

3.1. Research Design

A qualitative case study design was employed to gain in-depth insights into the perspectives of pre-service and in-service teachers regarding the challenges and strategies in teaching English speaking and writing skills to young learners in Iran.

3.2. Context and Participants

The study involved six English teachers: three pre-service and three in-service. The pre-service teachers were selected from Ershad University of Damavand English language teaching students, while the in-service teachers were selected from instructors teaching English to young learners at elementary levels in Tehran. Purposive sampling ensured participants had relevant experience with teaching English to young learners.

Table 1

Demographic Information of Participants

3.3. Instruments

3.3.1. In-Depth Interviews

Semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted with all participants. During these interviews, the participants were asked about challenges in teaching speaking and writing skills to young learners and strategies to address these challenges.

Interview question development was informed by previous research, particularly studies by Ahmed and Qasem (2019), Copland et al. (2014), Laila et al. (2023), and Güneş and Sarıgöz (2021). Questions were structured around key themes that included motivation and student attitudes toward learning English, autonomy in language practice, classroom participation and engagement, teaching abstract concepts to young learners, addressing foundational skills of handwriting and writing development, as well as pronunciation issues stemming from first-language interference. Practical aspects such as classroom management strategies, the use of technology in language instruction, and the selection and adaptation of teaching materials were included as well. For validity, two teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) experts reviewed and revised the questions.

3.3.2. Observation

Classroom observations triangulated the interview data, allowing direct examination of teaching practices and challenges in real classroom settings. The observations focused on themes identified in the literature and those emerging from the interviews. The observation checklist followed Creswell's (2015) guidelines and was developed based on the themes that emerged in the interviews with the participating teachers.

3.4. Data Collection Procedure

In the first phase, in-depth interviews were conducted with each participant. Each deep, semi-structured interview lasted 15-30 minutes. Participants provided their informed consent and could withdraw if uncomfortable with questions.

Following the interviews, classroom observations were conducted. The researcher observed ten teaching sessions for each teacher participant, recording sessions for further thematic analysis.

3.5. Data Analysis Procedure

The study employed qualitative thematic analysis following Braun and Clarke's (2006) six-phase framework with open coding and organizing codes into categories and larger themes. The data were coded with the aid of two experienced coders in young learners’ qualitative research. They exhibited a high level of intercoder reliability of .80.

4. Results

The analysis of the interview data disclosed a wide variety of themes connected to instructing English to young students in Iran. Interestingly, in-service educators created a greater number of themes when compared with pre-service instructors, suggesting an enhanced recognition or concern about possible problems amongst those in the occupation full-time (see Table 2).

Table 2

The Key Themes Identified From the Interview Data

To determine if the frequency difference between themes produced by in-service and pre-service teachers was statistically significant, a chi-square test was run. Table 3 shows the results.

Table 3

Chi-Square Test of Independence Between Teacher Status and Theme Production

The result is significant at p < .05, indicating a relationship between teacher status (in-service vs. pre-service) and theme production.

This indicates that in-service teachers produced more instances of each identified theme compared to their pre-service counterparts. This disparity suggests that pre-service teachers anticipated fewer difficulties in teaching English to young learners than their experienced counterparts.

Nevertheless, in the case of classroom management challenges, pre-service teachers expressed a high level of concern about managing young learners' behavior. Pre-service teacher A stated, "I'm worried about how to keep the young students focused and engaged.” On the same note, the in-service teachers also reported that they still have difficulty in managing young learners. This clearly shows some of the challenges that still exist in practice and need to be addressed in professional development programs. Additionally, the concerns regarding management expressed by the pre-service teachers show how inadequate classroom management training in many teacher preparation programs leaves them feeling unprepared to handle real classroom situations. As one of the pre-service teachers noted, “I’m even more confused about class management after attending these teacher training courses than I was when I first started.”

Several pre-service teachers worried about suitable teaching materials. Pre-service teacher C commented, "The textbooks we have access to are extremely obsolete and boring for children. I want to make use of more interactive and fun materials; however, I'm not sure where to locate them or exactly how to create them myself." In-service teachers often reported establishing their very own remedies. In-service educator D shared, "Over the years, I've learned how to adapt and produce my very own teaching materials. It's time-consuming, however, necessary to keep young students involved."

In the case of limited English proficiency of students, most pre-service educators shared concern about students' limited English knowledge. Pre-service teacher E mentioned, "Most students I've run into during practicum have limited English vocabulary. I'm concerned about this when their starting point is so low." In-service instructors typically reported techniques they have developed. In-service teacher F described, "While low efficiency is a difficulty, we've found that utilizing visual help, Total Physical Response (TPR) tasks, and a great deal of repetition aids in developing a solid foundation."

Many pre-service teachers expressed concern about keeping students engaged. Pre-service teacher G worried, "I'm concerned about keeping young learners interested in English when they have limited exposure to it outside the classroom." In-service teachers also reported the same challenge. They also noted that autonomy in speaking is what most of these students lack.

Three pre-service teachers expressed anxiety about managing large groups. Pre-service teacher I commented, "I'm worried about managing a class of 40 or more young learners. How can I give everyone a chance to practice speaking?"

In the case of inadequate teacher preparation, many pre-service teachers expressed concern about their readiness to teach young learners. Pre-service teacher K stated, "I feel that my training is not enough for me to understand the realities of teaching English to young children.”

All pre-service teachers were worried about managing limited class time. Pre-service teacher G commented, "I'm concerned about covering all the required material while still giving enough time for speaking and writing practice." On the same note, in-service teacher D shared, "We only have 2-3 hours of English per week. It's not enough time to really develop students' communication skills.”

In the case of parents' economic status, most pre-service teachers expressed concern about socioeconomic disparities. Pre-service teacher A stated, "The gap between students from different economic backgrounds is huge. Some have private tutors and English camps, while others barely have a textbook."

In-service teachers acknowledged this ongoing challenge as well. In-service teacher F noted, "We see the impact of economic status daily. Students from wealthier families often progress faster.”

4.1. Challenges of Teaching Writing and Speaking to Young Learners

Many pre-service teachers expressed their concerns about teaching productive skills. Pre-service teacher A stated, "Teaching writing and speaking seems especially daunting with young learners. They're still developing these skills in their first language, let alone in English."

In-service teachers also reported ongoing challenges. In-service teacher F explained, "Writing and speaking are indeed challenging to teach. We focus a lot on scaffolding, starting with very simple tasks and gradually building complexity.”

According to the analyzed data, teaching English to young learners produces considerable challenges, especially in speaking and writing, as highlighted by in- and pre-service instructors' experiences. Speaking-related problems, such as autonomy and involvement to engage young students in spoken communication, are frequently an outcome of a lack of autonomy and minimal performance. Composing obstacles were in a similar way visible, with syntax and handwriting placing significant barriers, specifically for pre-service instructors who are most likely not accustomed to techniques to scaffold in very early literacy education. Additionally, encouraging young pupils and taking care of large classes requires teachers to speak and create challenging tasks.

4.2. Analysis of Observation Data:

Following the analysis of the observed data, the frequency of each theme produced in the interview data was checked to determine if there was any consistency between these sets of data.

Despite teachers' revealed desire to conduct lessons largely in English, observing their classes showed frequent use of Persian (L1) in the class. This was specifically evident when providing directions, managing habits, and explaining complex ideas. While instructors normally used brief question-answer exchanges, there were a couple of opportunities for long-term, significant communication in English. Many observed lessons were generally teacher-centered, with limited student-to-student communication or independent work.
Teachers who supported video games in their classes demonstrated a higher level of student participation, though these were far less observed in the case of the instructors who expressed their endorsement for more standard and structured teaching. Writing activities were limited to copying or fill-in-the-blank exercises, with little concentration on innovative or communicative writing. Additionally, using modern technology in the course was hardly ever observed, no matter some educators stating its possible advantages in the interview sessions.

Table 4

Summary of Classroom Observation Data

5. Discussion

Several themes generated in the case of in-service educators, particularly the occurrence of L1 use, restricted speaking chances, and teacher-centered instruction, can be attributed to various factors. Large class sizes and time restrictions, as mentioned in the interviews, might lead instructors to rely extra on teacher-centered approaches and L1 use for classroom management (Copland et al., 2014). This is aligned with Zein's (2017) finding that such situations pose challenges for teachers.

The teacher-centered approach observed in the classes might reflect wider academic standards in the Iranian context. As Zein (2018) notes, classrooms in the Asia-Pacific area, for instance, place a large emphasis on educator authority. The focus on writing activities, albeit restricted ones, may be because of preparing trainees for examinations. This confirms Garton et al.’s (2011) note that teachers in numerous EFL contexts emphasize abilities that are far more heavily assessed in formal evaluations. The void between teachers' shared purposes (e.g., lessons in English) and observed practices might suggest a demand for more targeted professional development. This aligns with Butler's (2015) observation that significant problems in teacher education programs appear to stay with teachers' language proficiency and guidelines. The low frequency of innovation and use of games/songs could be because of restricted resources or the absence of training in their application. This echoes Zein's (2018) finding that instructors primarily use modern technology for teacher-centered functions such as lesson prep work and training delivery. These observations highlight the complex facts of implementing communicative language learning approaches in the Iranian EFL context for young learners. They emphasize the need for context-specific educator education and professional development programs that deal with difficulties instructors need to deal with in their day-to-day class practices.

The analysis of interview data revealed a vast array of challenges dealt with by both pre-service and in-service educators. Surprisingly, in-service educators identified a higher variety of difficulties compared to their less-experienced counterparts, suggesting that useful training experience may help instructors develop approaches to attend to these troubles. Nevertheless, several obstacles remain substantial also for experienced teachers, highlighting the intricate nature of mentoring English to young students in Iran. The most frequently mentioned challenges by in-service instructors were parents' financial standing, communication issues, low English proficiency of learners, and large class sizes. For pre-service educators, the leading challenges were limited English proficiency of students, pronunciation, technology assimilation, and syntax structure. This distinction in top priorities between both groups recommends that pre-service teachers might be more concentrated on immediate classroom concerns, while in-service educators have a broader viewpoint that consists of socioeconomic factors impacting students’ performance.

Both pre-service and in-service instructors expressed substantial issues about class monitoring, particularly in the context of huge class sizes. This difficulty was compounded by the energetic nature of young students and their propensity to be conveniently sidetracked. The problem of offering individualized focus and adequate speaking practice in courses of 35-40 pupils was a recurring theme. This finding aligns with previous research by Zein (2017), which kept in mind that instructors typically struggle to take care of young students’ actions, specifically in large classes. The occurrence of this challenge highlights the demand for targeted specialist growth in classroom management methods, particularly customized for large classes. It also raises questions about instructional policies concerning course dimensions and resource appropriation in English language education.

The findings recommend a demand for far more reliable approaches to develop English skills and keep pupils inspired throughout the learning process. In-service educators reported developing techniques such as making use of visual aids, TPR tasks, and comprehensive repetition to address these difficulties. Nevertheless, the persistence of this problem even amongst in-service teachers indicates a requirement for even more systemic remedies, possibly consisting of educational program modifications and increased direct exposure to English outside the class.

Surprisingly, while pre-service teachers expressed high passion for modern innovation assimilation, classroom observations disclosed very marginal use of modern technology. This variance between passions and technique might be due to resource restrictions, lack of training, or institutional obstacles. The study highlights a demand for much better positioning in teacher training programs and the facts of course sources. The challenges of teaching efficient abilities, namely speaking and writing, to young learners ended up being a significant challenge. Teachers reported troubles originating from pupils' restricted vocabulary, uncertainty, mother tongue interference, and attention deficit disorder. These difficulties were highlighted in previous research studies (Cameron, 2001; Ghajarieh et al., 2024).

A fascinating search was the obvious choice among instructors for concentrating on writing abilities over speaking capacities. This propensity could be driven by the exam-oriented nature of the Iranian education system, where writing is more substantially evaluated. Nevertheless, this concentration on creating at the expense of communication abilities could not properly prepare students for real-world language use, highlighting a possible discrepancy between training techniques and the communicative goals of language understanding.
Another finding from this research study was that none of the educators highlighted the relevance of interaction in language courses. This is consistent with observations in the literature concerning the obstacles of using communicative language mentor approaches in EFL contexts (Butler, 2011; Ghajarieh & Mirkazemi, 2023). Instead, many educators in this research preferred to focus on their trainees' creative abilities, as they regarded these as a lot more essential for the English classes taught in their official schooling system.

6. Conclusion

The findings of this study have a number of crucial implications for English language teaching in Iran. There is a clear demand for improved teacher training programs that much better provide pre-service educators with the realities of training young pupils. These programs require a focus on practical approaches for teaching effective skills to young students and approaches for establishing innovative techniques. For in-service educators, constant professional development opportunities should be provided to educators for the sake of developing the best strategies to handle large classes and incorporate modern technology efficiently.

This research highlights a requirement for even more age-appropriate and appealing approaches that are specifically designed and adopted for young students in the Iranian context. Curriculum designers need to think about incorporating more communicative tasks and placing more emphasis on writing and reading skills in a communicative way. By highlighting systemic problems such as huge class sizes, the absence of appropriate products, and limited technology adoption, the research study provided evidence that can enlighten teacher educators in English language learners’ teaching contexts.

Future studies can explore the long-lasting effectiveness of diverse training methods in improving language innovation and autonomy amongst young trainees. Comparative studies of English language teaching from different geographical locations might provide useful understandings of teaching processes in the case of young learners. Given the effect of socioeconomic factors on language learning, extensive research studies can examine their influences on young trainees. Focusing on young students' perspectives can improve our understanding of their motivations, choices, and problems. Action research on class management techniques tailored to large classes of young EFL pupils might contribute to the young English learners’ research community. Discovering culturally delicate techniques of including English-speaking cultures into language classes while highlighting regional values is one more appealing chance for research.

The results suggested that English language instructors in Iran experience a number of obstacles, specifically when teaching younger trainees. Pre-service and in-service educators both mentioned a number of problems. While in-service teachers managed much more macro-level troubles, such as sociocultural factors, pre-service educators indicated that they called for aid with class administration and mentor methods. Furthermore, the disparity between teachers' ideas and the real course practices highlights the worth of context-specific professional development. To address these issues, educators, curriculum developers, and institution managers need to cooperate to create a more helpful and fulfilling learning environment for pupils and trainers. To this end, research and practice need to go together to find effective methods that encourage teachers to instruct young learners more effectively. More specifically, effective methods, such as utilizing intriguing materials, storytelling, and other learner-centered activities, as well as technology-enhanced approaches, can be valuable in addressing these challenges. To encourage better learning outcomes, it is essential to provide communicative-oriented professional and pre-service training courses. By implementing these strategies, instructors can far better help Iranian young pupils to learn English as a global language.